A 1954 Triumph T110 650 cc motorcycle
A Ural motorcycle with sidecar
A
motorcycle (also called a
motorbike,
bike, or
cycle) is a
single-track,
[1] two-wheeled
[2] motor vehicle. Motorcycles vary considerably depending on the task for which they are designed, such as
long distance travel, navigating
congested urban traffic,
cruising,
sport and
racing, or off-road conditions.
Motorcycles are one of the most affordable forms of motorised transport in many parts of the world and, for most of the world's population, they are also the most common type of motor vehicle.
[3][4][5] There are around 200 million motorcycles (including mopeds, motor scooters and other powered two and three-wheelers) in use worldwide,
[6] or about 33 motorcycles per 1000 people. This compares to around 590 million
cars, or about 91 per 1000 people. Most of the motorcycles, 58%, are in the developing countries of Asia—Southern and Eastern Asia, and the Asia Pacific countries, excluding Japan—while 33% of the cars (195 million) are concentrated in the United States and Japan. As of 2002, India with an estimated 37 million motorcycles/mopeds was home to the largest number of motorised two wheelers in the world. China came a close second with 34 million motorcycles/mopeds.
[7][8]
[edit] History
Replica of the Daimler-Maybach
Petroleum Reitwagen.
The first
internal combustion,
petroleum fueled motorcycle was the
Petroleum Reitwagen. It was designed and built by the German inventors
Gottlieb Daimler and
Wilhelm Maybach in
Bad Cannstatt, Germany in 1885.
[9] This vehicle was unlike either the
safety bicycles or the
boneshaker bicycles of the era in that it had zero degrees of
steering axis angle and no
fork offset, and thus did not use the principles of
bicycle and motorcycle dynamics developed nearly 70 years earlier. Instead, it relied on two outrigger wheels to remain upright while turning.
[10] The inventors called their invention the
Reitwagen ("riding car"). It was designed as an expedient testbed for their new engine, rather than a true prototype vehicle.
[11][12] Many authorities who exclude
steam powered, electric or diesel two-wheelers from the definition of a motorcycle, credit the Daimler
Reitwagen as the world's first motorcycle.
[13][14][15]
If a two-wheeled vehicle with steam propulsion is considered a motorcycle, then the first was the French
Michaux-Perreaux steam velocipede of 1868.
[11][12] This was followed by the American
Roper steam velocipede of 1869, built by
Sylvester H. Roper Roxbury, Massachusetts.
[11][12] Roper demonstrated his machine at fairs and circuses in the eastern U.S. in 1867,
[9] and built a total of 10 examples.
[15]
In 1894,
Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series production motorcycle, and the first to be called a motorcycle (
German:
Motorrad).
[11][12][15][16] In the early period of motorcycle history, many producers of
bicycles adapted their designs to accommodate the new internal combustion engine. As the engines became more powerful and designs outgrew the bicycle origins, the number of motorcycle producers increased.
Until
World War I, the largest motorcycle manufacturer in the world was
Indian,
[17][18] producing over 20,000 bikes per year.
[19] By 1920, this honour went to
Harley-Davidson,
[citation needed] with their motorcycles being sold by dealers in 67 countries.
[20][21] By the late 1920s or early 1930s,
DKW took over as the largest manufacturer.
[22][23][24]
After
World War II, the
BSA Group became the largest producer of motorcycles in the world, producing up to 75,000 bikes per year in the 1950s.
[citation needed] The German company
NSU held the position of largest manufacturer from 1955 until the 1970s.
[citation needed]
In the 1950s, streamlining began to play an increasing part in the development of racing motorcycles and the "dustbin fairing" held out the possibility of radical changes to motorcycle design. NSU and
Moto Guzzi were in the vanguard of this development, both producing very radical designs well ahead of their time.
[25] NSU produced the most advanced design, but after the deaths of four NSU riders in the 1954–1956 seasons, they abandoned further development and quit
Grand Prix motorcycle racing.
[26] Moto Guzzi produced competitive race machines, and by 1957 nearly all the Grand Prix races were being won by streamlined machines.
[citation needed] The following year, 1958, full enclosure fairings were banned from racing by the
FIM in the light of the safety concerns.
From the 1960s through the 1990s, small two-stroke motorcycles were popular worldwide, partly as a result of
East German Walter Kaaden's engine work in the 1950s.
[27]
Today, the motorcycle industry is mainly dominated by Japanese companies such as
Honda,
Kawasaki,
Suzuki, and
Yamaha, although
Harley-Davidson and
BMW continue to be popular and supply considerable markets. Other major manufacturers include
Piaggio group of Italy,
KTM,
Triumph and
Ducati.
In addition to the large capacity motorcycles, there is a large market in smaller capacity (less than 300 cc) motorcycles, mostly concentrated in Asian and African countries. An example is the 1958
Honda Super Cub, which went on to become the biggest selling vehicle of all time, with its 60 millionth unit produced in April 2008.
[28] Today, this area is dominated by mostly
Indian companies with
Hero Honda emerging as the world's largest manufacturer of two wheelers. Other major producers are
Bajaj and
TVS Motors.
[29] For example, its
Splendor model has sold more than 8.5 million to date.
[30]
[edit] Technical aspects
A Suzuki GS500 with a clearly visible frame (painted silver).
[edit] Construction
Motorcycle construction is the engineering, manufacturing, and assembly of components and systems for a motorcycle which results in the performance, cost, and aesthetics desired by the designer. With some exceptions, construction of modern mass-produced motorcycles has standardised on a
steel or
aluminium frame,
telescopic forks holding the front wheel, and
disc brakes. Some other body parts, designed for either aesthetic or performance reasons may be added. A petrol powered
engine typically consisting of between one and four
cylinders (and less commonly, up to eight cylinders) coupled to a
manual five- or six-speed
sequential transmission drives the
swingarm-mounted rear wheel by a chain,
driveshaft or
belt.
[edit] Fuel economy
Motorcycle fuel economy varies greatly with engine displacement and riding style
[31] ranging from a low of 29 mpg
-US (8.1 L/100 km; 35 mpg
-imp) reported by a Honda VTR1000F rider,
[32] to 107 mpg
-US (2.20 L/100 km; 129 mpg
-imp) reported for the Verucci Nitro 50 cc Scooter.
[33] A specially designed Matzu Matsuzawa Honda XL125 achieved 470 mpg
-US (0.50 L/100 km; 560 mpg
-imp) "on real highways - in real conditions."
[34] Due to low engine displacements (100 cc–200 cc), and high power-to-mass ratios, motorcycles offer good fuel economy. Under conditions of fuel scarcity like 1950s Britain and modern developing nations, motorcycles claim large shares of the vehicle market.
[edit] Electric motorcycles
Very high fuel economy equivalents can be derived by electric motorcycles. Electric motorcycles are nearly silent,
zero-emission electric motor-driven vehicles. Operating range and top speed suffer because of limitations of battery technology.
[citation needed] Fuel cells and petroleum-electric
hybrids are also under development to extend the range and improve performance of the electric motors.
[edit] Dynamics
Different types of motorcycles have different dynamics and these play a role in how a motorcycle performs in given conditions. For example, one with a longer wheelbase provides the feeling of more stability by responding less to disturbances.
[35] Motorcycle tyres have a large influence over handling.
Motorcycles must be leaned in order to make turns. This lean is induced by the method known as
countersteering, in which the rider momentarily steers the handlebars in the direction opposite of the desired turn. Because it is counter-intuitive this practice is often very confusing to novices—and even to many experienced motorcyclists.
[36]
Short
wheelbase motorcycles, such as
sport bikes, can generate enough torque at the rear wheel, and enough stopping force at the front wheel, to lift the opposite wheel off the road. These actions, if performed on purpose, are known as
wheelies and
stoppies respectively. If carried past the point of recovery the resulting upset is known as an "endo" (short for "end-over-end"), or "looping" the vehicle.
[edit] Accessories
Various features and accessories may be attached to a motorcycle either as
OEM (factory-fitted) or
after-market. Such accessories are selected by the owner to enhance the motorcycle's appearance, safety, performance, or comfort, and may include anything from
mobile electronics to
sidecars and
trailers.
[edit] Social aspects
Main article:
Motorcycling[edit] Popularity
Number of motorcycles vs number of cars by country. Size of pie indicates population. 2002 estimates.
[7][8] 
Millions of cars (light blue) and motorcycles (dark blue) in the top 20 countries with the most motorcycles. Population in red. 2002 estimates.
[7][8] 
Motorbikes are the primary form of transportation in Vietnam.
In numerous cultures, motorcycles are the primary means of motorised transport. According to the Taiwanese government, for example, "the number of automobiles per ten thousand population is around 2,500, and the number of motorcycles is about 5,000."
[37] In places such as Vietnam, motorised traffic consist of mostly motorbikes
[4] due to a lack of public transport and low income levels that put automobiles out of reach for many.
[3]
The four largest motorcycle markets in the world are all in Asia: China, India, Indonesia, and Vietnam.
[3] The motorcycle is also popular in Brazil's frontier towns.
[5] Amid the
global economic downturn of 2008, the motorcycle market grew by 6.5%.
[38]
Recent years have seen an increase in the popularity of motorcycles elsewhere. In the USA, registrations increased by 51% between 2000 and 2005.
[39] This is mainly attributed to increasing fuel prices and urban congestion.
[40] A
Consumer Reports subscribers' survey of mainly United States motorcycle and scooter owners reported that they rode an average of only 1,000 miles (1,600 km) per year, 82% for recreation and 38% for commuting.
[41] Americans put 10,000–12,000 miles (16,000–19,000 km) per year on their cars and light trucks.
[42]
[edit] Subcultures
Sunbeam motorcycle owners rally, 2008.
A Hells Angels wall
mural in Southampton, UK
Around the world, motorcycles have historically been associated with
subcultures. Some of these subcultures have been loose-knit social groups such as the
cafe racers of 1950s Britain, and the
Mods and
Rockers of the 1960s. A few are believed to be criminal gangs. Books about motorcycle subcultures include
Hunter S. Thompson's
Hells Angels (1966),
Lee Gutkind's
Bike Fever (1974), and Daniel R. Wolf's
The Rebels (1991).
Social motorcyclist organisations are popular and are sometimes organised geographically, focus on individual makes, or even specific models. Example motorcycle clubs include:
American Motorcyclist Association,
Harley Owners Group and
BMW MOA. Some organisations hold large international
motorcycle rallies in different parts of the world that are attended by many thousands of riders.
Whereas many social motorcycle organisations raise money for charities through organised events and rides, some other motorcycle organisations exist only for the direct benefit of others.
Bikers Against Child Abuse (BACA) is one example. BACA assigns members to individual children to help them through difficult situations, or even stay with the child if the child is alone or frightened.
[43]
In recent decades, motorcyclists have formed political lobbying organisations in order to influence legislators to introduce motorcycle-friendly legislation. One of the oldest such organisations, the British Motorcycle Action Group, was founded in 1973 specifically in response to
helmet compulsion, introduced without public consultation.
[44] In addition, the
British Motorcyclists Federation (BMF), originally founded in 1960 as a reaction to the public perception of motorcyclists as leather-jacketed hooligans, has itself moved into political lobbying. Likewise, the U.S. has
ABATE, which, like most such organisations, also works to improve
motorcycle safety, as well as running the usual charity fund-raising events and rallies, often for motorcycle-related political interests.
[45]
At the other end of the spectrum from the charitable organisations and the motorcycle rights activists are the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs. These are defined by the Provincial Court of Manitoba as: "Any group of motorcycle enthusiasts who have voluntarily made a commitment to band together and abide by their organisations' rigorous rules enforced by violence, who engage in activities that bring them and their club into serious conflict with society and the law".
[46] The
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and
Criminal Intelligence Service Canada have designated four MCs as Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs (OMGs), which are the
Pagans,
Hells Angels,
Outlaws MC, and
Bandidos,
[47][48] known as the "Big Four".
[49]
[edit] Mobility
A couple ride on a motorcycle in
Udaipur, India. Annual sales of motorcycles in India are expected to exceed 10 million by 2010.
[50] While people choose to ride motorcycles for various reasons, those reasons are increasingly practical, with riders opting for a powered two-wheeler as a cost-efficient alternative to infrequent and expensive public transport systems, or as a means of avoiding or reducing the effects of urban congestion.
[51] In places where it is permitted,
lane splitting, also known as filtering, allows motorcycles to use the space between vehicles to move through stationary or slow traffic.
[52]
In the UK, motorcycles are exempt from the £8 per day
London congestion charge other vehicles must pay to enter the city during the day. Motorcycles are also exempt from
toll charges at some river crossings, such as the
Severn Bridge,
Dartford Crossing, and
Mersey Tunnels. Some cities, such as
Bristol, allow motorcycles to use
bus lanes and provide dedicated free parking. In the United States, those states that have
high-occupancy vehicle lanes also allow for motorcycle travel in them. Other countries have similar policies.
In New Zealand motorcycle riders are not required to pay for parking that is controlled by a barrier arm;
[53] the arm does not occupy the entire width of the lane, and the motorcyclist simply rides around it.
[54] Many car parks controlled in this way supply special areas for motorcycles to park, so as not to unnecessarily consume spaces.
In many cities that have serious parking challenges for cars, such as San Francisco, US and
Melbourne, Australia, motorcycles are generally permitted to park on the sidewalk, rather than occupy a space on the street which might otherwise be used by a car.
[citation needed]
[edit] Safety
Motorcycles have a higher rate of fatal accidents than automobiles or trucks and buses.
United States Department of Transportation data for 2005 from the
Fatality Analysis Reporting System show that for passenger cars, 18.62 fatal crashes occur per 100,000 registered vehicles. For motorcycles this figure is higher at 75.19 per 100,000 registered vehicles – four times higher than for cars.
[55] The same data shows that 1.56 fatalities occur per 100 million vehicle miles travelled for passenger cars, whereas for motorcycles the figure is 43.47 – 28 times higher than for cars (37 times more deaths per mile travelled in 2007).
[56] Furthermore for motorcycles the accident rates have increased significantly since the end of the 1990s, while the rates have dropped for passenger cars.
Wearing a motorcycle helmet reduces the chances of death or injury in a motorcycle crash
The two major causes of motorcycle accidents in the United States are: motorists pulling out or turning in front of motorcyclists and violating their rights-of-way and motorcyclists running wide through turns. The former is sometimes called a
SMIDSY, an acronym formed from the motorists' common response of "Sorry mate, I didn't see you".
[57] The latter is more commonly caused by operating a motorcycle while intoxicated.
[58] Motorcyclists can anticipate and avoid some of these crashes with proper training, increasing their conspicuousness to other traffic, and separating alcohol and riding.
The United Kingdom has several organisations which are dedicated to improving motorcycle safety by providing advanced rider training over and above what is necessary to pass the basic motorcycle test. These include the
Institute of Advanced Motorists (IAM) and the
Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (RoSPA). Along with increased personal safety, riders with these advanced qualifications often benefit from reduced insurance costs.
In South Africa, the
Think Bike campaign is dedicated to increasing both motorcycle safety and the awareness of motorcycles on the country's roads. The campaign, while strongest in the Gauteng province, has representation in Western Cape, KwaZulu Natal and the Free State. It has dozens of trained marshals available for various events such as cycle races and is deeply involved in numerous other projects such as the annual Motorcycle Toy Run.
[59]
An MSF rider course for novices
Motorcycle Safety Education is offered throughout the United States by organisations ranging from state agencies to non-profit organisations to corporations. Most states use the courses designed by the
Motorcycle Safety Foundation (MSF), while
Oregon and Idaho developed their own. All of the training programs include a Basic Rider Course, an Intermediate Rider Course and an Advanced Rider Course.
In the UK (except Northern Ireland) and some Australian jurisdictions, such as
Victoria,
New South Wales,
[60] the
Australian Capital Territory,
[61] Tasmania[62] and the
Northern Territory,
[63] it is compulsory to undertake a rider training course before being issued a Learners Licence.
In Canada, motorcycle rider training is compulsory in
Quebec and
Manitoba only, but all provinces and territories have Graduated Licensing programs which place restrictions on new drivers until they have gained experience. Eligibility for a full motorcycle licence or endorsement for completing a Motorcycle Safety course varies by province. The
Canada Safety Council, a non-profit safety organisation, offers the Gearing Up program across Canada and is endorsed by the Motorcycle and Moped Industry Council.
[64] Training course graduates may qualify for reduced insurance premiums.
A boulevard cruiser (front) and a sportbike (background)
French police motorcyclist
There are three major types of motorcycle: street, off-road, and dual purpose. Within these types, there are many different sub-types of motorcycles for many different purposes.
Street bikes include
cruisers,
sportbikes,
scooters and
mopeds, and many other types. Off-road motorcycles include many types designed for dirt-oriented racing classes such as
motocross and are not street legal in most areas. Dual purpose machines like the
dual-sport style are made to go off-road but include features to make them legal and comfortable on the street as well.
Each configuration offers either specialised advantage or broad capability, and each design creates a different riding posture.
[edit] Motorcycle rider postures
The motorcyclist's riding position depends on rider body-geometry (
anthropometry) combined with the geometry of the motorcycle itself. These factors create a set of three basic postures.
[65]
- Sport — the rider leans forwards into the wind and the weight of the upper torso is supported by the riders arms (at low speed) and air pressure (at high speed, e.g., above 50 mph (80 km/h). The footpegs are below the rider or to the rear. The reduced frontal area cuts wind resistance and allow higher speeds. At low-speed this position throws the weight of the rider onto the arms, and this can be tiring to the rider's wrists. The sports position makes it more difficult for the rider to look around and foot through traffic.
- Standard — the rider sits upright or leans forwards slightly. The feet are below the rider. These are motorcycles that are not specialised to one task, but may not excel in one area either.[66] The standard posture is used with touring and commuting as well as dirt and dual-sport bikes, and is may offer advantages for beginners.[67] The rider enjoys the benefits of freedom of head movement, good visibility in all directions, and easier use of the feet while moving through stationary traffic.
- Cruiser — the rider sits at a lower seat height with the upper torso upright or leaning slightly rearwards. Legs are extended forwards, sometimes out of reach of the regular controls on cruiser pegs. The low seat heights can be a consideration for new or short riders. Handlebars tend to be high, and wide. Harley-Davidsons are exemplars of this style.[68] The emphasis is on comfort, while compromising cornering ability because of low ground clearance and the greater likelihood of scraping foot pegs, floor boards, or other parts if turns are taken at the speeds other types of motorcycles can do.[69][70]
Factors of a motorcycle's
ergonomic geometry that determine the seating posture include the height, angle and location of footpegs, seat and handlebars. Factors in a rider's physical geometry that contribute to seating posture include torso, arm, thigh and leg length, and overall rider height.
[edit] Legal definitions and restrictions
A motorcycle is broadly defined by law in most countries for the purposes of registration, taxation and rider licensing as a powered two-wheel motor vehicle. Most countries distinguish between mopeds of 49 cc and the more powerful, larger, vehicles (scooters do not count as a separate category). Many jurisdictions include some forms of three-wheelers as motorcycles.
[edit] Environmental impact
| | This section may need to be rewritten entirely to comply with Wikipedia's quality standards, as the dispute in the Europe section over LA Times citation up in the intro section is disjointed and confusing. See talk. You can help. The discussion page may contain suggestions. (September 2009) |
In 2007 and 2008, motorcycles and scooters, due to good fuel efficiency, attracted interest in the United States from environmentalists and those affected by increased fuel prices.
[71][72] Piaggio Group Americas supported this interest with the launch of a "Vespanomics" website and platform, citing lower per-mile carbon emissions of 0.4 lb/mile (113 g/km) less than the average car, a 65% reduction, and better fuel economy.
[73]
Other sources, however, claim that while motorcycles produce much less pollution in terms of greenhouse gases, a motorcycle can in some cases emit 10–20 times the quantity of nitrogen oxides (NOx) when compared to the NOx emissions of a car.
[71][74] This is because many motorcycles lack a
catalytic converter to reduce NOx emissions, and while catalytic converters have been used in cars long enough that they are now commonplace, they are a relatively new technology in motorcycles.
[71] Many newer motorcycles (such as later models of the
Yamaha R1 and
Suzuki GSXR1000, as well as most BMWs which have included catalytic converers since the 1990s) now have factory fitted catalytic converters. Along with other technologies that have taken longer to appear in motorcycles (e.g. fuel injection, anti-lock brake systems),
[citation needed] catalytic converters are becoming increasingly commonplace.
United States Environmental Protection Agency 2007 certification result reports for all vehicles versus on highway motorcycles (which also includes scooters),
[75] the average certified emissions level for 12,327 vehicles tested was 0.734. The average "Nox+Co End-Of-Useful-Life-Emissions" for 3,863 motorcycles tested was 0.8531, for a difference of about 16%, not the claimed 10X factor. Likewise, if one looks at how many of the 2007 motorcycles tested were also catalytic equipped, 54% of them, 2,092, were equipped with a catalytic converter.
[edit] United States emissions limits
The following table shows maximum acceptable legal emissions of the combination of hydrocarbon and nitrous oxides, as well as carbon monoxide, for new Class III motorcycles (280 cc or larger displacement) sold in the United States.
[76]
| Tier | Model year | HC+NOx (g/km) | CO (g/km) |
| Tier 1 | 2006–2009 | 1.4 | 12.0 |
| Tier 2 | 2010 and later | 0.8 | 12.0 |
The maximum acceptable legal emissions of hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide for new Class I and II motorcycles (50 cc–169 cc and 170 cc–279 cc respectively) sold in the United States are as follows:
[76]
| Model year | HC (g/km) | CO (g/km) |
| 2006 and later | 1.0 | 12.0 |
[edit] Europe
European emission standards for motorcycles are similar to those for cars. New motorcycles must meet Euro III standards,
[77] while cars must meet Euro V standards. Therefore, the difference in total pollution between motorcycles and cars that pass European emission standards would be small, certainly much smaller than the 10X factor claimed by the referenced
LA Times article. Motorcycle emissions controls are being updated and it has been proposed to update to Euro IV in 2012 and Euro V in 2015
[78]
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- ^ Foale, Tony (2006). Motorcycle Handling and Chassis Design. Tony Foale Designs. pp. 4–1. ISBN 978-84-933286-3-4.
- ^ Cossalter, Vittore (2006). Motorcycle Dynamics. Lulu. ISBN 978-1-4303-0861-4.
- ^ a b c Hiroko Nakata (8 October 2008). "Motorcycle makers battle it out in Vietnam". Japan Times. Retrieved 11 March 2009.
- ^ a b Patti McCracken (1 October 2008). "Vietnam eats, sleeps, and dreams on motorbikes". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 11 March 2009.
- ^ a b Alexei Barrionuevo (3 November 2008). "That Roar in the Jungle Is 15,000 Motorbikes". The New York Times. Retrieved 11 March 2009.
- ^ Shuhei(Yamaha Motor Co., Ltd., JPN), Adachi (2006). "Fuel Cell Powered Motorcycles". Journal of the Society of Automotive Engineers of Japan 60 (1): 90–93. ISSN 0385-7298.
- ^ a b c "Passenger Cars; Map No. 31". Worldmapper: The world as you've never seen it before. 2002. See Technical notes for this data
- ^ a b c "Mopeds And Motorcycles Map No. 32". Worldmapper: The world as you've never seen it before. 2002. See data files for the statistics
- ^ a b "The Past—1800s: First motorcycle". The History and Future of Motorcycles and motorcycling—From 1885 to the Future, Total Motorcycle Website. Retrieved 28 June 2007.
- ^ Lienhard, John H. (2005). Inventing Modern: Growing Up with X-Rays, Skyscrapers, and Tailfins. Oxford University Press US. pp. 120–121. ISBN 0195189515.
- ^ a b c d Setright, L.J.K. (1979). The Guinness book of motorcycling facts and feats. Guinness Superlatives. pp. 8–18. ISBN 0851122000, 9780851122007.
- ^ a b c d Falco, Charles M.; Guggenheim Museum Staff (1998). "Issues in the Evolution of the Motorcycle". In Krens, Thomas; Drutt, Matthew. The Art of the Motorcycle. Harry N. Abrams. pp. 24–31. ISBN 0892072075.
- ^ "motorcycle, n.". Oxford English Dictionary Online. Oxford University Press. March 2009. "1. A two-wheeled motor-driven road vehicle, resembling a bicycle but powered by an internal-combustion engine; (now) spec. one with an engine capacity, top speed, or weight greater than that of a moped."
- ^ Long, Tony (30 August 2007). "Aug. 30, 1885: Daimler Gives World First 'True' Motorcycle". Wired (magazine). ISSN 1059-1028.
- ^ a b c Kresnak, Bill (2008). Motorcycling for Dummies. Hoboken, New Jersey: For Dummies, Wiley Publishing. ISBN 0470245875
- ^ "Brief History of the Marque: Hildebrand & Wolfmuller". Hildebrand & Wolfmuller Motorad, European Motorcycle Universe. Retrieved 28 June 2007.
- ^ Walker, Mick (2006). Motorcycle: Evolution, Design, Passion. JHU Press. ISBN 0801885302, 9780801885303.
- ^ George Hendee. The AMA Motorcycle Hall of Fame Museum. Retrieved 8 August 2009.
- ^ Youngblood, Ed (June 2001). "The Rise and Fall". American Motorcyclist (American Motorcyclist Assoc) 55 (6).
- ^ Prashad, Sharda (16 April 2006). "HOG WILD; U of T professor Brendan Calder is one of the legions of baby boomers who have helped to ensure the success of the Harley- Davidson brand name, not to mention its bottom line.". Toronto Star (Toronto, Ont.): p. A.16.
- ^ Cato, Jeremy (8 August 2003). "Harley-Davidson at 100". The Vancouver Sun (Vancouver, B.C.): p. E.1.Fro.
- ^ Vance, Bill (24 April 2009). "Motoring Memories: DKW/Auto Union, 1928 - 1966". Canadian Driver.
- ^ de Cet, Mirco (2002). The illustrated directory of motorcycles. MotorBooks/MBI Publishing Company. p. 128. ISBN 0760314179, 9780760314173.
- ^ Walker, Mick (1999). Mick Walker's German Racing Motorcycles. Redline Books. p. 61. ISBN 0953131122, 9780953131129.
- ^ Willoughby, Vic (1982). Exotic Motorcycles. London: Osprey Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 0850453224.
- ^ "Rupert Hollaus". Motorsport Memorial. Retrieved 3 April 2008.
- ^ Ed Youngblood. "Motocross goes International, 1947 through 1965". The History of Motocross, Part Two, Motorcycle Hall of Fame Museum. Retrieved 29 June 2007.
- ^ Squatriglia, Chuck (23 May 2008). "Honda Sells Its 60 Millionth - Yes, Millionth - Super Cub". Autopia. Wired. Retrieved 28 January 2010.
- ^ O'Malley Greenburg, Zack (13 August 2007). "World's Cheapest Car". Forbes. Retrieved 28 January 2010.
- ^ "Hero Honda splendor sells more than 8.5 million units". indiacar.net. Retrieved 10 August 2008.
- ^ "Motorcycle Fuel Consumption & Real World Performance Guide". MFC Website. Retrieved 13 June 2008.
- ^ "Total Motorcycle Fuel Economy Guide". Total Motorcycle Website. Retrieved 14 August 2006.
- ^ "Verucci Gas Scooters". Gekgo Worldwide, www.gekgo.com. Retrieved 15 August 2006.
- ^ "Doing More with Less Energy". The Craig Vetter Fuel Economy Contests - 1980 through 1985. Retrieved 15 August 2006.
- ^ Gaetano, Cocco (2004). Motorcycle Design and Technology. Minneapolis: MotorBooks/MBI Publishing Company. pp. 34–35. ISBN 9780760319901. "So with the same disturbance, the rider with a longer wheelbase will feel less oscilating movement on the handlebars, and therefore, will have a perception of greater stability on the motorcycle."
- ^ Joel Fajans (July 2000). "Steering in bicycles and motorcycles" (PDF). American Journal of Physics, v. 68 (7): 654–59. Retrieved 4 August 2006.
- ^ Chung-Li. "Sustainable Development Indicators for Taiwan". Workshop on Sustainable Development Indicators. Retrieved 14 August 2006.[dead link]
- ^ Makiko Kitamura and Tetsuya Komatsu (3 March 2009). "Honda’s $140-a-Month Motorbikes Ease Pain of ‘Grim’ Car Market". Bloomberg. Retrieved 11 March 2009.
- ^ "Popularity of high-performance motorcycles helps push rider deaths to near-record high". Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. 11 September 2007. Retrieved 22 October 2008.
- ^ PRNewswire (19 May 2008). "Soaring Gas Prices Shine Money-Saving Spotlight on Motorcycles". Reuters. Retrieved 28 January 2010.
- ^ Travers, Jim (1 June 2010). "Survey: Motorcycle and scooter owners are very satisfied with their bikes". Consumer Reports. Retrieved 2010-08-02
- ^ Emission Facts: Greenhouse Gas Emissions from a Typical Passenger Vehicle. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Transportation and Air Quality. February 2005. Retrieved 2010-08-02
- ^ "About BACA". Bikers Against Child Abuse. Retrieved 10 October 2007.
- ^ "About MAG". MAG UK. Retrieved 10 October 2007.
- ^ Some other lobbying organisations are listed in Category:Motorcyclists organizations.
- ^ Organized Crime Fact Sheet- Public Safety Canada
- ^ FBI Safe Street Violent Crime Initiative - Report Fiscal Year 2000- FBI.org
- ^ 2004 Annual Report- Criminal Intelligence Service Canada, cisc.gc.ca
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